Costa Rican History: William Walker & the Filibusters

William Walker

William Walker looms large in Costa Rican history books. He is the bogeyman to punish naughty kids with!  Imagine their astonishment then to find that most Americans haven't heard of William Walker or his band of merry men known as "filibusters" (buccaneers). Walker belonged to an era when Americans believed that territorial expansion was an obligation and a right!  Why should the Spanish have all the fun, claiming land and wealth in America's backyard?

The word "filibuster" derives from the Dutch vrijbuiter (freebooter) and Spanish filibustero (plunderer or pirate).  It came to mean Southern adventurers who, during the decade before the Civil War, conducted private armed expeditions to carve out kingdoms and assume power in Latin American and Caribbean countries. The newly acquired lands were meant to join the Confederacy as slave states.

The U.S. had already taken huge pieces of land from Mexico, adding Texas and California to the Union, and purchased the Louisiana Territory from France. Central America was the next target, as were Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Cuba and the Philippines. Although Washington had signed a treaty with Britain - to steer clear of Central America - filibusters regarded the treaty as a mere impediment!

Fulfilling America's Manifest Destiny

The aim of the filibusters was to overpower "lesser peoples" and fulfil America's manifest destiny: a right to world expansion and domination!  They had a strong support base in the South with parades held in their honour and their adventures glorified!  Between the years 1830 and 1860, Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, and Nicaragua - all became filibuster targets.

By fighting against countries with which the U.S. was at peace, the filibusters flouted neutrality laws that forbid Americans from engaging in private warfare with other nations. They created major diplomatic rows, almost taking the U.S. and England to war. The U.S. Navy brought filibusters and their armies back to stand trial several times but they were usually found not guilty!  

President of Nicaragua

William Walker, Southerner from Tennessee and notorious filibuster,  tried to annex Central America to establish a slave-holding empire. Anticipating secession from the Union and the abolition of slavery, his intention was to find new slaves to work the cotton plantations of the South. Walker first tried in Mexico by invading Sonora and Lower California, and declaring the areas free, in expectation of future U.S. annexation. Mexican forces had little trouble expelling his men. He was tried for breaking U.S. neutrality laws but public sentiment was on his side and he was acquitted!  

In future filibustering expeditions, Walker took power in Nicaragua and led the country for two years as president. His rapid rise and policy of "Americanisation" (legalisation of slavery, declaring English as the official language, and encouraging immigration from the U.S.) angered Central American leaders. Walker was also known for executing opponents, confiscating their estates and reselling them to U.S. supporters.  His lack of military prowess was not a suffcient deterrent for his men who, like him, were there to acquire wealth.

Costa Rica, Inter-Oceanic Canal & Juan Santamaría

Juan Santamaria Memorial

Walker soon turned his attention to neighboring Costa Rica. He tried to make peace with Costa Rican President Juan Rafael Mora but the latter saw this as a ruse for invasion. Mora also feared U.S. influence in the disputed border area of Guanacaste (claimed by both Costa Rica and Nicaragua); it contains the San Juan River which flows from the Atlantic into Lake Nicaragua and shortens the distance to the Pacific over land. In the 1850s-1860s, this strategic territory was seriously considered by Britain, France, Spain, and the U.S. as the site for a possible inter-oceanic canal!

Costa Rica had never mobilised for war but fear of enslavement brought in 9,000 volunteers. Yankee mercenaries were stopped at Santa Rosa and chased back into Nicaragua. During the fight, a Costa Rican drummer boy Juan Santamaría was killed while setting fire to Walker’s defences. At Parque Nacional in San Jose, we saw a memorial to the Battle of Rivas, 1856, commemorating Walker's defeat.  Although Walker returned twice more to attack Central America, the story of the brave young farmer, Juan Santamaría, served to strengthen national identity.

Like other countries in the region, Costa Rica did not experience a war of independence; over the years, however, the successful military campaign against Walker and the dreaded filibusters became its fight for freedom and Juan Santamaría its hero! 

Cornelius "Commander" Vanderbilt

Although Walker had no dearth of foes (Britain, the Central Americans, the U.S.), his main enemy was powerful New York shipping and railroad magnate, Cornelius "Commander" Vanderbilt. When Walker transferred the charter of Vanderbilt's Accessory Transit Company (with its large fleet of steamboats) to competitors, Vanderbilt sent agents to Nicaragua to recapture his steamboats and foment insurrection; he also sent money and arms to Costa Rica to intervene. Denied steamboats and other reinforcements, Walker was defeated.

Removed from Nicaragua by the U.S. Navy and made to stand trial, Walker was again found not guilty. His acquittal meant his inevitable return with another mercenary army.  His luck finally ran out.  After a failed attempt to take Nicaragua via Honduras, he surrendered to a British navy captain, who turned him over to Honduran authorities. In 1860, at the age of 36, Walker was executed for piracy by a Honduran firing squad. 

Filibustering Movement Dies, South Secedes

The start of Civil War hostilities brought an end to the filibuster movement. Historians argue that the short-lived gains made by the filibusters emboldened the South and may have impacted its decision to secede from the Union. Most Southerners continued to regard Walker as a hero, feeding the myth.  The fact that he was found not guilty of filibustering half a dozen times by juries of his peers is a reflection of a darker era that looked kindly on his exploits and provided him with funds and armies to return time and again for more plundering.

Ludi Joseph
San Jose, Costa Rica, Feb. 25, 2015

Text from my iPad
Photo of Walker from Google