Thai-Burma "Death Railway" -  Indian POWs, Labourers also died

The Thai–Burma (or Burma-Siam) railway - which stretched over 400 kilometers between Thailand and Myanmar (Burma) - was built in 1942–43 to supply the Japanese forces in Burma. 

When completed a year later, the Japanese planned to carry food, ammunition and troops for their long-planned offensive into India.  They also wanted to attack the roads and airfields over the Himalayan Mountains used by the Allies to supply China.  

More than 60,000 Allied prisoners of war (POWs) were employed in the construction of the railway, including British Empire troops, Dutch and colonial troops from the Netherlands East Indies and a smaller number of US troops. 

The Japanese also coerced about 200,000 Asian "slave" labourers to work on the railway, including Burmese, Chinese, Indonesian, Malay, Tamil, and Thai. 

Disease and Starvation

The British had surveyed a possible rail connection route between Thailand and Burma in the 1880s but abandoned the project because of the challenges posed by the impossible terrain, thick jungle and lack of adequate roads.  

Japanese soldiers worked on the railway as engineers or guards. Since their military code made them view POWs as unworthy of respect, they did not provide adequate food and medicine or slow the pace of construction. As a result, many thousands of prisoners died from disease and starvation.

100,000 Asian Labourers, including Tamils, Perished

More than 12,000 Allied POWs died during the construction; hence the name "Death Railway." Around 1,000 Japanese died.  

Many Asian labourers also lost their lives; one life was lost for each railway sleeper laid in the track.  Although record keeping was poor, about 100,000 Tamil and other Asian labourers are estimated to have perished.  

About 7,000 POWs who died while constructing the railway are buried at Thailand's Kanchanaburi War Cemetery.  Another 2,000 are laid to rest at Chungkai.  Both cemeteries are maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.

Bridge on the River Kwai

The 1957 David Lean film "Bridge on the River Kwai" - about the building of a bridge on the Death Railway - features an unhinged British POW commander Col. Nicholson (played by Alec Guinness) who takes such pride in British expertise that he cooperates with Japanese commander, Col. Saito, to demonstrate what British engineering skills can accomplish.  When an Allied commando mission tries to sabotage the bridge, Nicholson almost foils them. The plot is loosely-based on a real life incident.

The theme of the film is the futility and insanity of war; the British and Japanese commanders are both egotistical, inflexible and blindly follow rules and tradition.

Railway Man

A new film, "The Railway Man" (which I coincidentally saw on the flight back to the US) is a moving real life account of how a British soldier (Eric Lomax, played by Colin Firth), survived torture and extreme deprivation as a POW in Thailand.  Lomax (a lifelong railway buff), was force-marched along with other Australian, British, Indian and Malay prisoners to the infamous concentration camp at Changi in Singapore.  He was subsequently sent to Burma to work on the railway.  

Lomax (who died in 2012, age 93) and other POWs built their own radio to follow the progress of the war; but they were caught, severely beaten (two died) and moved to a special prison for prolonged torture.  Because of these experiences, Lomax suffered severe mental trauma for years after the war.  Unlike many others, he not only survived but - some 40 years later - returned to face his chief Japanese tormentor. 

Ludi.

Singapore, August 28, 2014

Text and Photos from my iPad

Changi Prison and Changi Chapel, Singapore

 

Battles of Kohima and Imphal - Indian Apathy

The New York Times recently published an article on the 70th Anniversary of the Battles of Kohima and Imphal - now the capital cities of the states of Nagaland and Manipur on India's northeastern border.  The battles were critical - if lost, the Japanese would have invaded India.  They were on our doorstep!

The defeat is acknowledged by Japan as its worst ever while, in a recent survey, the battles beat out Waterloo and D-Day as Britain's greatest military triumph!  Japan suffered more than 60,000 casualties; most were the result of starvation, disease and exhaustion; in comparison, British and Indian forces lost around 17,000 men. 

The article mentioned the lack of official Indian enthusiasm to celebrate the victory.  By the same token, New Delhi is failing to acknowledge the sacrifice made in terms of Indian lives lost.  We should remember those who died preventing a Japanese invasion.

Perhaps the Indian Government is ambiguous about celebrating the anniversaries of WWII battles because Indian soldiers fought under the British flag.  

Indians in fact fought on both sides.  Indian National Army (INA) leader, Subhash Chandra Bose, is said to have had a strained relationship with the then Indian leadership (Gandhi, Nehru, Patel) who disapproved of his tactics and his alliances with the Nazis and Japanese.

Honour the Deaths of Indians in WWII

India should overcome its doubts, honour its war dead and ensure they are remembered in the same manner as the other Allied powers do.  If not for the British and Indian forces who foiled the attack, the Japanese invasion of India was a very real possibility; they had already occupied the Andamans and committed terrible atrocities there.

According to researchers, during the three and a half years of Japanese occupation of India's Andaman Islands (situated midway between the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean), 30,000 of the 40,000 population of the capital city, Port Blair, were brutally murdered.  In a later incident and because food and water were scarce, the civilian population was bayoneted, beheaded and their remains burnt to ashes to erase all traces of the massacre.  Much of this happened just hours ahead of the Japanese surrender on August 15, 1945.

Gallipoli is a Good Example

New Delhi should prepare for Australian, European and Japanese visitors who would come to Kohima and Imphal if anniversary events were organised and the requisite infrastructure put in place, such as, renovated hotels, roads, bus depots, train stations, and airports; well-maintained battlefields and museums; and organised tours.

India would also need to promote these arrangements - respectfully - just as Turkey does in Gallipoli, site of the 1915-16 WWI campaign in the Dardanelles, Turkey (then the Ottoman Empire) in which the Allies were crushed.  

Thousands of Australians and Kiwis along with British and French make the pilgrimage to Gallipoli every year (throughout the year - not just on the anniversary) to honour their countrymen and family members who died there.  More than 1,400 British Indian troops also lost their lives but are barely mentioned by tour guides.  The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) maintains the graves and memorials at Gallipoli. 

Next year (2015) is the 100th Anniversary of Gallipoli and Turkey is pushing ahead for a major ceremony.  There are so many visitors expected that one's name must be drawn in a lottery in order to attend! 

Think of the income and local jobs this generates for Turkey!  If the infrastructure was established in India, national and local vendors as well as tourist businesses could experience the same economic boost while the general population would acquire more knowledge of and pride in India's history on an international level.

Partner with the Commonwealth War Graves Commission

The countries locally involved in the Battles of Kohima and Imphal (India, Bangladesh and Myanmar) should figure this out with the help of the CWGC as well as battlefield administrators and tour operators from important WWII battlefields (e.g., Normandy and Dunkirk).  

India already has CWGC-maintained war cemeteries and cremation memorials in Kohima and Imphal; Bangladesh also has war cemeteries in Mainamati and Chittagong.

According to the same New York Times article, because of the region’s longtime isolation, the battlefields of Kohima and Imphal are well preserved and clearly visible with trenches, bunkers and airfields.  Despite the passage of 70 years, they are in very good condition.

War Museum and Chapel

In the US, battle enactments are a major attraction for visitors and tourists. These include campaigns from the War of Independence, the Civil War and War of 1812.  I used to think it hokey until I realised that this is a serious occupation for war buffs, military historians and descendants of soldiers who participated in those battles. It is a way of honouring the dead and keeping their memories alive as well as teaching history more creatively and imaginatively to young people. 

Singapore's Changi Museum is a great example of how to organise and dedicate a war museum. Through letters, drawings, photos and personal artefacts, the museum chronicles the courage and heroism of POWs and civilian internees. The Changi Chapel on the premises is a place of pilgrimage for veterans and families of former POWs.  India would do well to use Singapore's Changi War Museum and Chapel as examples of what can (tastefully and respectfully) be done. 

Ludi.

Singapore, August 27, 2014

Text and Photos from my iPad

War Memorials, Gallipoli, Turkey; 
Google Maps of Kohima, Imphal

 

Japanese Occupation of Southeast Asia - Many Indian Dead

The Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia during World War II is regarded as one of the darkest periods in the region's history; some of the worst atrocities against soldiers and civilians were committed by the Japanese in Burma, Indochina, Indonesia, Malaya, the Philippines, Thailand and Singapore - as well as India's Andaman Islands.

First Major Battle of the Pacific War

Malaya’s flourishing economy and strategic location made it an important target. In December 1941 - before the attack on Pearl Harbor - Japan bombed Singapore and the beaches of Kota Bharu in Kelantan (northeast coast of Malaya).  Serving as the base of the Royal Air Force and Royal Australian Air Force, Kota Bharu was the first major battle of the Pacific War and was fought between ground forces of the British Indian Army (including the 17th Dogra Regiment) and the Empire of Japan. 

The Japanese took over Malaya with little opposition. Commonwealth troops - inadequately trained in jungle warfare and lacking ammunition - were expecting an invasion by sea (not by land), and fell easily.  Malaya and Singapore were occupied by the Japanese until the war ended and British and Allied forces returned.  

Fall of Singapore

The Fall of Singapore - Britain's major military base in Southeast Asia - was the worst disaster and largest surrender in British military history.  About 80,000 British, Indian and Australian troops became prisoners of war (POWs) joining 50,000 taken from the earlier Malay Campaign. 

According to an exhibit at Singapore's Changi War Museum, the British had so greatly underestimated the Japanese that - even though the invading army was only a few hours away - the dancing and merriment continued at the Raffles Club!

More than 60,000 Indian Dead

Indian troops were the largest national force in the Allied army defending Singapore  and Malaya.  Most were deployed in Northern Malaya. They faced not only the initial Japanese onslaught but were also heavily engaged in all the main battles in the peninsula. 

Having been trained for North African desert warfare, Indian units were unprepared for guerrilla war in the Malay jungles. They had no armoured support and insufficient anti-tank weapons and training; as a result, Indian infantry units were decimated. 

Raw recruits and inexperienced officers were sent to the front resulting in Indians accounting for more than 60 percent of total Allied casualties suffered. Most official accounts agree on 60,000 plus Indian dead. 

Indian National Army

After the Allied surrender in February 1942, Indian prisoners were sent to the Selentar Camp in Singapore. There and at the Changi Camp, they came under intense pressure to join the Indian National Army (INA) or Azad Hind Fauj led by Subhash Chandra Bose.  Many did join the INA; others refused and were executed by the Japanese.

Formed by Indian nationalists in Southeast Asia in 1942, the INA's aim was to secure India's independence with Japanese help.  Initially composed of Indian POWs captured by Japan in the Malay campaign and at Singapore, the INA later drew volunteers from Tamil expatriates in Malaya and Burma.

More than 40,000 Indian POWs refused to join the INA. They suffered the same hardships as Allied troops and were even sent by the Japanese to build airfields in the South Pacific; few returned. 

After the Japanese surrender, the 5th India Division was the first Allied force that returned to liberate Singapore in September 1945. 

Kranji Memorial - Many Walls of Indian Dead

The Kranji War Memorial is laid out on a sloping green hill with a view of the Straits of Johor to the north and the hills of Singapore to the south.  The main avenue of the cemetery rises from the Stone of Remembrance near the entrance to the Cross of Sacrifice, beyond which are steps leading to a hill top terrace.

A stone sculpture called the Singapore Memorial Wall rises from the top of the slope.  An enormous slab roof is supported by 12 walls on which the names of 24,000 servicemen are inscribed; they have no known graves and no date of death, but were reported missing or captured in the Malay and Indonesia campaigns. The wall also lists the names of those who died during the construction of the Burma-Siam Death Railway and those who were lost at sea while being transported to other POW camps.  

The names of Indian dead occupy more walls at Kranji than any other country.  The regimental names evoke the Colonial era and include the Frontier Force Rifles, Dogra and Punjab Regiments, Jat Light Infantry, Hyderabad Infantry, the Indian Army Medical Corps, Royal Indian Army Service Corps, Indian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, and others representing Kapurthala, Rajputana, Sikh, Garhwal and so on. 

On the terrace behind the Memorial Wall is the Cremation Memorial which commemorates 789 soldiers of the Indian Army who were cremated according to Hindu rites; they were predominantly Tamils, Sikhs and Rajputs.


Changi Museum and Chapel

At Changi Museum, visitors can see photos and paintings of the city under occupation while former prisoners recount stories of torture, murder and starvation in the notorious Changi Prison. There is a full-size replica of the Changi Chapel which was first constructed by prisoners in 1942.  

The highlight of the chapel is a series of wall paintings called the Changi Murals, recreated from the originals painted by Bombardier Stanley Warren.  Another mural near the entrance, titled Two Malarias with a Cholera, portrays the experience of the artist Ray Parkin during his time on the Death Railway.

By documenting significant events of the Japanese Occupation, the museum serves as an important educational resource and pilgrimage site for POW families.  

The Changi Museum has coats of arms and plaques for British and Australian regiments that lost men but - sadly - not a single Indian regiment is represented.  

Ludi.
Singapore, August 26, 2014
Text and Photos from my iPad

Kranji War Memorial

 

Welcome to Georgetown, Penang!

The first thing that strikes you about Penang (an island off the northwestern coast of the Malay Peninsula) is that the three main communities - the Malays, Chinese and Tamils - live in harmony.  There is in fact a "Street of Harmony" in Georgetown (the former British capital of Penang) in which Islam, Taoism, Hinduism and Christianity are all represented: the Kapitan Keling Mosque, the Kuan Yin Temple, the Sri Maha Mahariamman Temple and St. George's Church, the oldest Anglican Church in Southeast Asia.  They were built about 140 to 180 years ago and are in various stages of repair and renovation. 

British Colonizers

Britain's role on the Malay peninsula began in 1786 when Captain Francis Light of the British East India Company obtained Penang Island from the Sultan of Kedah.  For years, the British were only interested in Malaya for its seaports and trade routes, but the discovery of tin and rubber (both major trading commodities) prompted them to move inland and, eventually, to govern. 

Fort Cornwallis in Georgetown - located close to the Esplanade and only a few yards from the sea - is named after Lord Cornwallis, the Calcutta-based Governor-General of Bengal. (He is the same British commander who surrendered to the Americans and French at the Battle of Yorktown during the American War of Independence).

Fort Cornwallis is the country's largest standing fort and was used to ward off pirates as well as Dutch and Portuguese naval ships that wandered too far north from Malacca.  

Piracy

Piracy was a major issue in Penang in the 18th and 19th centuries. The free trade policy operated by the British attracted large numbers of native traders. These, in turn, attracted many pirates, for whom the British ships were easy prey in comparison with well-armed European merchant vessels.  

Interestingly enough, former Malay rulers viewed piracy as respectable!  Indeed, early 19th century Malay royalty - the Sultans of Johore and Temenggong - saw it as more honourable than regular trade.  According to historians, piracy might have been wiped out sooner had the Sultans stopped encouraging it.

Tea Time! Cruise Stop

Penang has many beautiful buildings from the colonial period including the City Hall, the Town Hall and the Eastern and Oriental Hotel.

You can well imagine the ladies - quite unsuitably dressed for the climate in long frocks and hats - and the gents (equally unsuitably dressed in linen suits) taking tea and nibbling cakes and cucumber sandwiches at the Eastern and Oriental!  Sadly, we didn't get a chance for tea in Penang but hope to go to the world-famous Raffles Hotel in Singapore to get our fix!  

Not surprisingly, Penang is actually a stop for cruise ships - mainly from Hong Kong, Singapore and Phuket (Thailand).

The multi-cultural multi-ethnic character of the island - and the uniquely English look and feel of Georgetown - is a huge draw for visitors.  After the crowds and pollution of Kuala Lumpur, Penang's laid back lifestyle, slower pace and fresh sea breezes were a welcome change!

Temples and Mosques

Sri Maha Mahariamman is Penang's oldest Hindu temple.  It was closed for renovation but we were told that its statue of Lord Subramaniam (richly decorated in gold and jewels) is taken out in a chariot procession once a year during the Thaipusam festival.  

Another popular temple is Kuan Yin, a Taoist shrine built by early Chinese settlers.  An indigenous Chinese religion from the 3rd century BC, Taoism emphasises harmony between nature, humanity and the divine.  It is associated with acupuncture, herbal medicine and the practice of "feng shui" which is based on the idea that the land is alive and filled with Chi, or energy.  When we visited the temple, young women were holding up offerings of burning joss sticks and going around in circles.

The handsome all-white Kapitan Keling Mosque - next door to Kuan Yin - was built by Indian Muslim traders. "Keling" is a Malay term for Indians and "Kapitan" means a representative of the Indian community.  Unlike the Blue Mosque in Istanbul (with stained glass windows and chandeliers), Kapitan Keling Mosque has no decoration except calligraphy.  After the ornate carvings and colourful statues in the Hindu and Taoist temples, this was very different, very austere. 

Babas and Nyonyas

The first Chinese to settle in the Straits Settlements (Penang, Malacca, Singapore), intermarried with the Malay community and adopted its culture. This new ethnic group called "babas" (males) and "nyonyas" (females) are known as Peranakan. They combined Chinese and Malay traditions to create a new culture.

The Peranakan Baba and Nyonya Mansion in Penang is the house of one such wealthy Chinese-Malay family (not to be confused with "mamaks" or people of Tamil-Malay heritage). These "acculturated" babas lived a very opulent lifestyle. With its eclectic design and architecture, the mansion has more than 1,000 antiques on display ranging from marble and rosewood furniture inlaid with mother-of-pearl to jade carvings, fine china, silk tapestries, lacquered baskets and giant ceramic plant holders.  It is now a private museum and heritage site.

Penang Hill and Buggy Ride

The view from the top of Penang Hill is well worth the journey by the Penang Hill Railway with its new Swiss-made coaches.  The summit provides a panoramic view of Georgetown and the nearly 8.5 mile-long Penang Bridge which is quite a feat of engineering. 

Malaysia's infrastructure is impressive. Its roads and bridges are in general very good when compared to the US.  As in Western Europe or other Asian countries, the government has massive public works projects and budgets and seems unafraid of spending money to maintain them!  

The country is justly proud of its famous Petrosan Twin Towers in KL - the tallest twin towers in the world!  Today they might be considered a costly self-indulgence but they were constructed at a time when the economy was booming and Malaysia was making its presence felt on the world stage. 

Penang city doesn't have the same Islamic and Moorish architecture of KL's skyscrapers but the bridges are stunning. At nearly 15 miles long, the Second Penang Bridge - the longest in Southeast Asia - opened earlier this year. 

We got a ten-dollar buggy ride from a 70-year old Chinese driver, Jimmy, who took us to all the scenic lookouts and photo stops on Penang Hill. We also glimpsed the vacation homes of rich Malays, visited a tiny mosque and the neighbouring Sri Thirumurugan Temple. 

Chinese Pagodas, Giant Buddhas and Turtles

On our way down Penang Hill, we explored the Kek Lok Si Temple complex. It is one of the biggest in Southeast Asia with pagodas, pavilions, giant buddhas and a towering bronze statue of the Goddess of Mercy (Kuan Yin) in addition to fish and turtle ponds. The seven-storey main pagoda (which contains 10,000 alabaster and bronze Buddhas) combines Chinese, Thai and Burmese designs - the goal is to reflect harmony between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.  

Another attraction at Kek Lok Si are the turtles in Liberation Pond.  They have been captured and freed as an act of spiritual liberation.  According to Chinese tradition, turtles symbolise longevity, strength and endurance. The sight of hundreds of turtles - swimming around, sunning themselves and waiting to gobble up chopped vegetables thrown at them by visitors - is quite amazing! 

After the turtles we walked down a covered stairway with souvenir shops and people asking for alms - I'd never seen a Chinese beggar before!  In Beijing they ban them!  In Bangkok, Buddhist monks beg for food as part of their monastic training; many are only monks for a few months and then go back to jobs, studies, etc.  I wondered if the Chinese beggars near Kek Lok Si were also temporary!  

Little India

Penang's Little India is a treat!  It is a very small area (mostly one narrow street and another one crossing it) - a typical lower-end Indian market selling everything from flower garlands to children's clothes, gaudy plastic sandals, cookware, toys, bangles, hair decorations, Ganesh statues, and so on.  

The most prominent store on the street had ear-shattering Tamil film music blaring from loudspeakers as well as a very large picture of Christ displaying a "Laxmi Video" caption!  I wasn't sure if I should be shocked (by the unintentional blasphemy) or just amused - I went with the latter!  

There is also a Little India in KL but it smelt of stale Tandoori food, not "shudh" (pure) Madrasi veg!  We ate dosas (rice and lentil pancakes), iddlies (steamed rice cakes) and "Mysoor Park" (a dessert made from lentils and pure ghee) at Woodlands in Penang's Little India.  It tasted very authentic!

Chinese and Indians

The immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to the Malay peninsula at the time of the British has had a profound impact on the Malay economy.  The workers were responsible for building the railways and also worked in the rubber plantations. In addition, Indians were employed as traders, soldiers, policemen and in government jobs. More recently, Indian nationals have come to work in construction, engineering, restaurants, IT and finance. 

The Chinese have been settling in Malaysia for many centuries as seen in the emergence of the Peranakan (mixed Chinese and Malay) culture. They began in tin mining and railway construction and later owned businesses that have become large conglomerates. Most Chinese are Tao Buddhist and retain strong ties to mainland China. The Peranakan community is very prominent in Penang, a state whose population is majority ethnic Chinese.

"Bumiputras"

Malaysia is 60 percent "bumiputras" (sons of the soil or indigenous Malays), 23 percent ethnic Chinese and 7 percent ethnic Indians, with the remainder made up of other races.  Since "bumiputras" traditionally lag behind in education and business, under national policies, they get cheaper housing, priority in government jobs and business licenses.

According to reports, the number of Indians offered a place in government-funded universities has dropped by more than half compared to a decade ago under the racial quota system, when at least 8 percent were Indian. Chinese student intake went down by a third in the same period.

I sat near a young Chinese student on the train from Penang to KL and got a quick education on the "unfairness" of the system for non-Malays.  He said that 80-90 percent of university seats are reserved for Malays and 5 percent for Chinese. There is no reservation for Tamils! In addition, Malays don't pay the 5 percent sales tax charged to everyone else.  If you are of mixed descent and your father is Malay you would be considered "bumiputra."  

It is no wonder then that, those who can, depart Malaysia for more merit-based countries.  I think it was one of the main reasons that Singapore left the Malaysian Federation back in 1965. 

Indian (and Chinese) Diaspora

The Indian diaspora in Southeast Asia is endlessly fascinating.  Like their distant Trinidadian and South African cousins, they cling to their Indianness!  They have their temples and mosques as well as their restaurants and hawker stalls. The Hindu women wear "bindis" ("pottus" in Tamil or red dots on the forehead); the Muslim women wear the "burkha" or black veil. (You can distinguish Malay women from the others; they wear scarves but don't cover their faces). 

Most Indians in Malaysia are Tamil Muslim and Tamil Hindu but you also have Sikhs, Gujaratis, Parsis, Malyalees, Telegus, and others.  One of our tour bus drivers - a "mona" or shaven Sikh - said his father came with the British Indian army.   

We had the best Tamil taxi drivers and one wonderful Chinese driver-cum-guide - the well-informed and courteous Mr Tee - who took us to Little India, Penang Hill and the Penang train station at Butterworth (such an "Angrezi" word)! 

I must also mention another young Chinese whom we met on the bus from KL to Singapore - Leong from Sarawak (one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo). He showed us how to navigate Malaysian departure and Singapore immigration at the large and confusing Woodlands Checkpoint. Leong waited for us (and a Filipino group) to complete embarkation forms, then guided us through several walkways to get us a taxi that took credit cards since we had no Singapore money! He carried my suitcase up and down stairs. He was even willing to pay our bus fares but we had too many bags to carry. Leong (and Mr. Tee) restored my faith in the "kindness of strangers" - and in Malaysia!

Ludi
Sunway Hotel, Georgetown, Penang
August 24/25, 2014
Text and Photos from my iPad

Penang

MALAYSIA - Impact of India

There is no Malaya, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia - or even Sri Lanka - without the spread of Hinduism and Buddhism from India or the overall cultural influence of India.  I thought I'd start my Malay blogs by first talking about the historical impact of India on Southeast Asia, particularly the role of religion (Hinduism) and language (Sanskrit).  

Aboriginal Malays

About 10,000 years ago, aboriginal Malays migrated to the Malay peninsula from southwestern China and spread throughout the Indonesian islands.  They were ethnically similar to the people of Sumatra, Java and the Philippines.  Various South and Southeast Asian empires exerted control over the region, including southern Indian kingdoms on the Deccan Plateau. 

Hinduism

Hinduism spread to Southeast Asia around 200 BC through traders from Kalinga (Orissa in eastern India).  It was concentrated around the islands of Java and Sumatra.  Around the same time, the Khmer rulers of Cambodia adopted Hindu practices; by the 8th century, the Khmers had taken Sanskrit names (Jayavarman II), adopted the Ramayana epic and built Hindu temples. 

Until about the 15th century, Indian culture spread from mainland India to what historians call the "Greater India" kingdoms of Southeast Asia.  These were Srivijaya (Sumatra - now Indonesia and Malaysia); Yavadvipa/ Singhasari  (Java); Kambuja (Cambodia); Ayutthaya (Thailand) and Lanka (Sri Lanka).  In the 14th century, most of Southeast Asia came under the Hindu kingdom of Majapahit.

Hinduism was the accepted religion of the Malays prior to the advent of Islam.

Sanskrit 

According to historical records, Sanskrit was used in Malaya in the fourth century.  Early Malay literature is inspired by the Ramayana and Mahabaratha. Even today, a major portion of the Malay vocabulary is made up of Sanskrit words. 

There is a joke that there are only four genuinely Malay words.  These are "api" or fire, "besi" or iron, "padi" or rice, and "nasi" or cooked rice; when a Malay speaks a sentence of ten words, five of them will be Sanskrit, three Arabic and the remaining English, Chinese or Persian! 

Words such as "putra" (son), "putri" (daughter), "kanchana" (gold), "negri"/"nagari" (city/town), "citra" (picture), "uttara" (north), "puji"/"puja" (worship), "periksa"/"pariksha" (examine), and thousands of other words are of Sanskrit origin or have been modified.

The name Indonesia comes from the same source as India (Indus river); Singapore is a Sanskrit word (meaning city of the lion from "singha" or lion); Sumatra (from "samudra") means ocean in Sanskrit; Java meaning barley is from the Sanskrit word "yava"; while Siam (the official name of Thailand until 1939) comes from the Sanskrit word "shyama" (meaning dark or black). 

Hindu Influence

Hindu influence was initially limited to royalty and the upper classes of old Malay society. According to the "Sejarah Melayu" (Malay Annals), royalty in Malaya was descended from Raja Suran, a legendary half-Indian half-Greek king.  

Hinduism spread through marriage; there was no proselytisation.  Malay princes who wanted a better standard of living wed their sons and daughters to the children of prosperous Indian merchants who influenced the ruling classes with whom they traded.

While the common people often followed the religion of their rulers, they were afraid of invoking the wrath of their previous gods and assimilated Hindu theology into existing animistic beliefs.  In fact the practice of Hinduism (and Buddhism) in Southeast Asia is so diluted (some might say corrupted) by local custom as to be somewhat unrecognizable to Hindus in India.

Malay Folklore: Hindu Gods

Malay folklore includes Vishnu, the preserver; Brahma, the creator; Batara  Guru (Kala) and S'ri.  To the Malays, "tok Batara Guru" was the all-powerful god before the advent of Islam; he could restore the dead to life and all prayers were addressed to him.

Of the lesser Hindu gods in Malay folklore, the most notable are the "gergasi," half-human tusked ogres that feed on human flesh. There are also "raksaksa" (or rakshasa), a race of cannibal giants ruled by Ravana, according to the Indian Puranas.  Raksaksa tribes are mentioned in the Kedah Annals. 

Early Melaka (Malacca) 

In 1405, a Hindu ruler, Parameswara from Temasek (Singapore), opened a trading post in Melaka. With the protection of the Chinese Emperor, Melaka withstood invasions from Siam in the north.  Melaka's rule covered almost the entire peninsula; it grew in prosperity, attracting Arab, Chinese and Indian traders.

Islam

Parameswara's son was the first Malay to convert to the new religion which was brought to Melaka by Indian and Arab traders.  Melaka became a sultanate and Islam spread throughout Malaya, Borneo and the Indonesian archipelago. 

Hinduism had already exerted a strong influence on Malay culture before the coming of Islam.  This influence has survived, despite the strict monotheistic restrictions of Islam.  

For instance, Muslim Malays use Hindu terminology when describing the Islamic concepts of heaven and hell.  They use "surga" (from the Sanskirt "svarga") to describe paradise instead of the Arabic word "al-jannah" (or "jannat") while "neraka" (from the Sanskirt "naraka") is used to explain hell instead of "al-nar" ("jahannum") or the place of fire. 

A Muslim religious teacher is often called "guru," a Hindu term; the Muslim prayer is called "sembahyang" which derives from Sanskrit "sembah" (to pray) and "yang" (meaning divinity or respect).

There are many other Hindu religious terms that may have lost their original meaning but are still used by Muslim Malays. 

Ludi.
Premiera Hotel, Kuala Lumpur
August 20, 2014
Text and Photos from my iPad


Hindu Temples, Kuala Lumpur & Penang

 

Bangkok in the Monsoon!

The monsoon in Bangkok can be relentless!  The rain poured almost non-stop for three days.  My group went on a treasure hunt all morning in the rain - through historic palaces and temples, the Sleeping Buddha monument, as well as a slushy melange of streets, bazaars, and roadside food vendors! The hunt combined tourism, knowledge of all things Thai, lots of fun, and a foot massage!

Treasure Hunt

We went by speeding motor boat (the famous Bangkok river ferry) the entire way.  The Chao Phraya River was turbulent with huge waves washing over the prow.  For me, the mere act of getting on and off the crazily rocking boat at the various "clue" stops was the most challenging part!

In the end, the hunt had to be called off before any of the teams won.  After the foot massage, the rain came down even harder; our shoes were squelching; we were soaking wet (despite our ponchos) and rather miserable!  So we gladly abandoned the hunt and went to a lovely Thai lunch instead - despite our bedraggled state.

Cruise

The treasure hunt was just one part of a program that included long and sometimes fractious work-related meetings.  We ended the day with a dinner cruise and dancers performing stories from the Hindu epic, the Ramayana.  One of the dancers was dressed as the popular monkey god Hanuman, a staple of such dance demonstrations. There was also a band with two singers doing American pop and country music - that sounded a bit incongruous in the very oriental setting!

Cruising through the natural beauty of the surrounding countryside, the historic ruins on either side of the boat provide a window into Thailand's rich past and the glory of this ancient city.

Oriental Hotel

The Mandarin Oriental where we stayed is considered one of the best in the world.  It really is quite luxe. The last time I was here (10 plus years ago) I stayed longer and went to the ancient city of Ayutthya to see the giant Buddhas.

Bangkok has changed a good deal but the Oriental is timeless.  It was nostalgic to once again check out the reading room and author’s lounge which has entertained the likes of Somerset Maugham, James Michener, Joseph Conrad, and Graham Greene – all of whom stopped by more than half a century ago!

Royal Palace 

Situated in the heart of Bangkok’s Rattanakosin Island, the shining spires of the Grand Palace are located near Bangkok’s most spectacular temples, including the Temple of the Emerald Buddha (Wat Phra Kaeo), the Temple of Dawn (Wat Arun), and Wat Pho, which features an enormous reclining Buddha.

Funny story about the palace: I had to get a skirt/sarong to cover my fully-clothed legs; you can't go into the palace which represents the king (who is considered to be god by the Thai people) wearing leggings as I was (or shorts or sleeveless shirts) as it's disrespectful!

Chao Phraya 

A word about the evocative Chao Phraya River, Bangkok's historic waterway.  Like all urban rivers, it’s history is intertwined with the city it flows through.  The city's original site was chosen by early settlers because of the fertile land and abundant fish.  After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese, King Taksin located his new capital in Bangkok.

King Rama I founded modern Bangkok in 1782 and celebrated the occasion by building some of the world's most beautiful temples close to the river.  More than 50,000 people still use river ferries each day and you can see heavy-laden barges busily plying the waterway.

On either side of the river is a wonderfully chaotic jumble of hotels, apartments, temples, stupas, churches, and civic buildings that help to make Bangkok look modern and traditional, religious and secular.

Just like the Oriental, many new hotels have chosen river-front locations, once again making the river the focal point of the city

Buddhist Monks

There are more than 400 functioning Buddhist temples in Bangkok.  The best time to visit them is in the early morning when it is cooler and less crowded. They play an important part in Buddhist traditions.

Monks live in the temple complexes, wake up at 4 am, perform their religious duties and then collect food and other necessities from people on the streets.  These rituals (called "tak bakht" in Thai, "bhiksha" in Sanskrit) takes place all over the country and is part of the Buddhist philosophy of asking for and giving alms to attain a better life beyond this one.

I spotted several saffron-robed monks collecting "bhiksha."  The goal of "bhiksha" is self-effacement or the conquering of one's ego; it is a Hindu tradition (practiced by "sadhus" or holy men) that was incorporated into Buddhism.

Buddhism came to Thailand from India in the third century BC when, according to tradition, the Indian emperor Ashoka sent two missionaries to the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati.

Theravada Buddhism

Although Buddhism came directly from India, the form eventually adopted in Thailand was Theravada (or Hinayana) developed in Sri Lanka and based on Pali texts.  Emperor Ashoka's sister is said to have gone to Lanka (as it was then known) to spread the religion.

By the early 13th century - when the first Thai sovereign state was founded in Sukhothai - Buddhist monks living in the south had become familiar with the Theravada doctrine of the Lanka school.  King Ramkamhaeng met these monks and invited them back to his capital to establish the religion which was embraced by the entire country.

Becoming a monk and renouncing materialism and domestic life (even temporarily) remains central to the practice of Buddhism in Thailand.  Many young men become ordained and enter a monastery for a couple of months.

Buddhism has been Thailand's most unifying factor; it runs through the country's cultural and social fabric and is as powerfully visible today as it probably was 700 years ago.

Ludi.
Bangkok Airport, September 28, 2012
Photos and text from my iPad

Bangkok

Buddhist Monk

Sleeping Buddha

Feet of Sleeping Buddha

Bangkok Palace

Barge on Bangkok's Chao Phraya River